If you have a specific problem number from the Craig 3rd edition, I’d be glad to help you work through the concepts or equations needed to solve it.
Euler’s formula for various end conditions, centric vs. eccentric loading, and the secant formula. Solutions include effective length factor selection for real-world columns. If you have a specific problem number from
The ductility of the steel specimen is:
$$\epsilon = \frac\sigmaE = \frac63.7 , \textMPa200 , \textGPa = 0.0003185$$ centric vs. eccentric loading
Common limitations and red flags